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Contents

 

Essential notes for readers

This document can be used for any purpose. It is simply requested that the document remains unaltered if used directly (leaving watermarks and website URLs on the document) or credit is provided to Christ is the Cure.org if the document’s contents are reproduced or adapted in other formats.

The first text of the Apostolic Fathers provided below is public domain, from Lightfoot’s translation of the Apostolic Fathers. Unfortunately, the translation is a bit dated, and I highly recommend Michael Holmes’ edition of The Apostolic Father. Note that Lightfoot’s edition does not contain the Fragments of Papias. 

It should be further noted that some of the information provided here is debated, especially regarding the issue of church organization. I have tried to summarize the information in a way that all could accept, but readers may find disagreement with my summaries on points.

Finally, Christ is the Cure is subscriber supported – prayerfully consider becoming a part of the support team at patreon.com/christisthecure

Resources

[Free] Lightfoot’s Text of the Apostolic Fathers from CCEL

[Paid] Michael Holmes, “The Apostolic Fathers”

[Paid] Nick Needham, 2000 Years of Church History vol.1

[Paid] Bruce Shelly, Church History in Plain Language

[Paid] Justo Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity: Volume 1

[Paid] Michael Holmes, “The Apostolic Fathers” (Greek/English)

[Paid] Paul Maier, Eusebius, the Church History

[Paid] Jarslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition vol. 1

[Paid/Free online] Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vol. 2

[Paid] Encyclopedia of Ancient Christianity (3 vol)

[Free] Essentials of Church History – Lesson 1 with Gordan Isaac from Biblical training.org

[Free] Gerald Bray – The World of the First Christians  from Biblical training.org

[Free] Gerald Bray – The Spread of the Church from Biblical training.org

[Free] Gavin Ortlund’s Channel, Truth Unites, which discusses church history often from a Protestant Perspective

Possible Lesson Plans [5 or 10 weeks]

Week 1: Introduction to the Apostolic Fathers 

Objective: Introduce students to the Apostolic Fathers and their historical and theological significance.

• Overview of the Apostolic Fathers: Provide a brief introduction to the Apostolic Fathers, including their historical context, key figures, and writings.

• Reading Assignment: Assign students to read an overview article or book chapter on the Apostolic Fathers.

• Possible Discussion Questions:

• Who were the Apostolic Fathers, and why are they important in early Christian history?

• What are some of the key themes or issues addressed by the Apostolic Fathers in their writings?

• How do you think the historical context in which the Apostolic Fathers lived and wrote influenced their teachings?

Weeks 2-3: Study of Specific Apostolic Fathers 

Objective: Dive deeper into the writings of specific Apostolic Fathers and analyze their teachings.

• Selection of Apostolic Fathers: Choose two or three specific Apostolic Fathers, such as Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp of Smyrna, or others, to focus on in more detail.

•  Reading Assignment: Assign students to read selected writings of the chosen Apostolic Fathers, focusing on key passages that highlight their teachings on various topics, such as church governance, unity, faith, ethics, and salvation.

•  Possible Discussion Questions:

• What are some of the main teachings of the chosen Apostolic Fathers in their writings?

•  How do they contribute to the development of early Christian theology and practice?

• How do the chosen Apostolic Fathers address specific issues faced by early Christian communities, such as church governance, unity, ethics, and salvation?

• How do the teachings of the chosen Apostolic Fathers compare with New Testament teachings on similar topics?

Weeks 4 (for 5-week plan) or Weeks 4-7 (for 10-week plan): In-depth Study of Apostolic Fathers

 Objective: Further explore the writings of the chosen Apostolic Fathers and their relevance for contemporary Christianity.

• Reading and Discussion: Assign students to read specific writings of the chosen Apostolic Fathers in more detail and facilitate in-depth discussions on their teachings, focusing on their historical, theological, and practical implications.

• Application to Contemporary Christianity: Discuss how the teachings of the Apostolic Fathers can be relevant and applicable to contemporary Christianity, and encourage students to reflect on how these early Christian writings can inform their faith and practice today.

• Open Discussion or Discussion Questions

Week 5 (for 5-week plan) or Weeks 8-10 (for 10-week plan): Synthesis and Conclusion 

Objective: Synthesize the learnings from the study of the Apostolic Fathers and conclude the lesson plan.

• Summary and Reflection: Summarize the key teachings and insights gained from the study of the Apostolic Fathers, and provide time for students to reflect on how their understanding of early Christianity has been enriched through this study.

• Application and Conclusion: Encourage students to consider how the teachings of the Apostolic Fathers can be practically applied to their own lives and ministries, and conclude the lesson plan with a time of prayer and thanksgiving for the insights gained.

• Possible Discussion Questions:

• What are the key learnings or insights you have gained from studying the Apostolic Fathers? 

• How has this study enriched your understanding of early Christianity and its relevance for contemporary Christianity?

• How can the Apostolic Fathers’ teachings practically apply to your own life and ministry? Are there any specific areas or practices that you feel challenged to change or incorporate based on their teachings?

• Reflect on the historical and theological significance of the Apostolic Fathers in the development of early Christian theology and practice. What can we learn from their writings about the early Christian community, its challenges, and its growth?

• Share your reflections on how your understanding of the early Christian faith has been deepened or expanded through the study of the Apostolic Fathers. What key takeaways will you carry with you in your ongoing journey of faith?

Notes: The specific readings, discussion questions, and activities can be tailored to the needs and interests of the audience. The above is just a suggestion or starting point for one wanting to work through the Apostolic Fathers in a Church History class, small group, etc.

Introduction: Who or What are the Apostolic Fathers?

Traditionally the term “The Apostolic Fathers” is used to designate the collection of Christian writings outside of the New Testament, particularly from the period between AD 70-150. The collection is important as it provides insight into Christianity immediately after the apostles’ lives. The collection deals with the church’s relationship to the state, Judaism, and exhortations for Christians in the post-Temple context. 

One example of this can be found in the document called the Didache, also known as “The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles.” Some propose that the Didache dates as early as AD 50, while others suggest a timeframe between AD 100 and 150 more likely (Smith, 2018, p. 90). The lack of definitive evidence makes the dating of the Didache a topic of ongoing discussion and speculation.

Despite its dating uncertainty, the Didache sheds light on the early Christian community’s practices and beliefs. The title itself, “The Teaching,” implies its instructional nature, providing guidance on the Christian life, church practices, and ethical conduct. The Didache is structured into several sections, covering various topics such as the way of life, instructions on baptism, fasting, prayer, the Lord’s Supper, disciplinary actions, leadership, etc.

The historical context of the Apostolic Fathers, including the Didache, is marked by a period of early Christian development and growth. The work presents teachings on Christian virtues and ethics, reflecting the challenges the early Christian community faced as it sought to establish its identity and navigate the complexities of the Roman world and the contemporaries holding to Judaism.

All of the documents of the Apostolic Fathers are valuable in this way and are an excellent way to familiarize oneself with the early church immediately following the Apostles. 

The Historical Setting of the Apostolic Fathers in Brief

After the reign of Roman Emperor Nero in AD 68, Christianity rapidly spread throughout the region, prompting questions about congregation organization and leadership, which will be discussed below.

A significant event that requires attention is the destruction of the Jewish Temple and the sack of Jerusalem in AD 70. The Jewish revolt against Rome from AD 66-74 was a pivotal moment in the history of Judaism and the relationship between Christians and Jews. The revolt, which lasted until AD 74, saw the temple destroyed by Titus, a Roman General, as a means to end the rebellion and resolve what he saw as the Jewish problem.

In response to the destruction of the temple, Judaism underwent significant changes. The focus of faith shifted from the temple to the synagogues, and Rabbis emerged as the new key religious leaders, leading to the disappearance of most sects of early Judaism, except for the Pharisees. This shift from priests to Rabbis also resulted in a greater emphasis on the study of Torah rather than temple worship, intending to prevent the development of sects within Judaism and draw a more apparent line between Jews and Gentiles (non-Jews).

Unfortunately, these changes also led to the condemnation and separation of Jews from Jewish Christians, resulting in bitterness and hostility that persisted for centuries.

Organization of the church

The terms “bishop” and “presbyter” (or elder) were initially synonymous, as indicated within the Letter of Clement. 1 Clement states that Christian communities were ordered by a group of presbyters who served as presbyter-bishops and had multiple roles, including offering the sacrifice (1 Clement, 44), which referred to administering the Eucharist (or communion). Clement presents this presbyter-bishop and deacon model as established by the apostles and as successors of the apostles in terms of authority over the community (1 Clement 42-44), thus linking the authority of these offices through the Apostles, Jesus, and God himself.

However, the idea of a single leader for each church, often referred to as the monarchial episcopate, quickly emerged, leading to a distinction between the roles of bishop and presbyter within the church. This threefold ministry of bishops, presbyters, and deacons would be fully realized by AD 180. Still, its full formalization would occur in the 3rd century (around AD 215 – 258), as seen in the writings of Ignatius of Antioch.

Ignatius of Antioch’s letters reveal that the bishop was considered the single leader of a congregation, with presbyters under their authority and assistance (Magnesians 2-3; Ephesians 5, 3, etc). Ignatius viewed the bishop as one who maintained congregational unity, filling the void left by the departed apostles. While the bishop held authority, the bishop was not seen as a replacement of the apostles in status but rather in certain functions. In Ignatius’ Letter to Smyrna (8), the bishop is placed at the center of congregational activities, with communion and baptism considered valid only when administered by a bishop or someone appointed by a bishop. Ignatius stresses the importance of congregational unity under a bishop, stating in Smyrna 8:2, “Wherever the bishop appears, there let the congregation be; just as where Jesus Christ is, there is the catholic church. It is not permissible either to baptize or to hold a love feast without the bishop. But whatever he approves is also pleasing to God, in order that everything you do may be trustworthy and valid.”

While the concept of Apostolic Succession would further develop during the rise of Gnosticism (with the first chronological list of Bishops found in Irenaeus of Lyons’ Against Heresies), Ignatius did not link the authority of the bishop to apostolic succession but rather to the will of God, who desires the bishop to be the head of the community as a head elder (Ephesians 6:1). Difficulties in tracing the development of this church structure arise from the confusion of language (bishop, presbyter, and elder). However, the scholarly consensus seems to indicate that the monarchical episcopate was an early development in the church, likely following Jewish structures of a president elder among elders in the synagogue.

Worship and Theology

During this period, there is little to add to the discussion of church teachings that cannot be ascertained from the scriptures, but there is evidence of the rise of errors such as Docetism and Ebionism. Docetism taught that Jesus Christ was not actually human but only appeared to be a man. According to this view, Jesus was a purely heavenly being who could not interact with the material world. This view was part of the larger worldview of Gnosticism, and Ignatius of Antioch, one of the Apostolic Fathers, addressed Docetism and laid the groundwork for the defense against Gnostic teachings, similar to the methods of Irenaeus. On the other hand, Ebionism taught that Jesus was not God in the flesh but a supreme prophet who perfectly obeyed God. Ebionites were Jewish Christians who continued to follow the laws of the Old Testament, viewing Jesus as the Son of God through adoption at his baptism. According to this view, Jesus would return to rule over the nation from Jerusalem, and Paul was considered a traitor to Judaism. Ignatius also spoke against this Judaizing tendency, reminding Christians they are not bound to the Old Covenant Law while defending the deity of Christ and his true incarnation. 

Regarding worship during the time of the Apostolic Fathers, the picture is complex to piece together precisely. Our first detailed description comes from Justin Martyr, one of the Christian Apologists who is not counted among the ‘apostolic fathers.’ However, the Apostolic Fathers give us some insight into various issues, such as early Christian’s view on the Mosaic Law, The Lord’s Day, the Lord’s Supper, Baptism, and so on.

Pagans and persecution

The Greco-Roman world’s paganism and moral values, which were heavily centered on territorial deities, often conflicted early Christianity with its neighbors. This was especially true because the idea of separating state and religion, or having private religion, was unheard of during that time. The pagan religion was deeply ingrained in the Roman Empire’s institutions, and the belief in supernatural causes and effects was prevalent in the people’s minds. For example, earthquakes or floods were sometimes attributed to the judgments of deities like Neptune or Poseidon against the growing Christian community. The inner turmoil of Rome was sometimes seen as a result of a lack of proper honor to the imperial cult. As a result, Christians were often excluded from many social practices, celebrations, entertainment, military duty, and other activities.

Ethically, Christians found themselves at odds with their neighbors as well. While Romans practiced abortion, infanticide, gladiatorial violence, divorce, and other behaviors, Christians rejected these practices, which made them unpopular among their contemporaries. Additionally, Christians were sometimes accused of engaging in detestable practices such as cannibalism, incest, and black magic, although these charges were based on misunderstandings of Christian beliefs and practices. For example, the notion of cannibalism arose from how Christians spoke of the Eucharist and partaking in Christ’s body and blood. The idea of incest came from Christians calling each other brother and sister due to their relationship in Christ and their participation in “love feasts” that included communion. The lack of clarity about Christian beliefs was exacerbated by the fact that Christians often met quietly due to the fear of persecution.

The Roman Empire also had periods of persecution against Christians, carried out by emperors such as Nero (AD 54-68), although some emperors like Commodus (AD 180-92) were more tolerant. During the period, we find the first official government pronouncement on how Christians should be dealt with, which came from Emperor Trajan (AD 98-117). Trajan received an inquiry from the governor of Bithynia, Pliny, asking for guidance on dealing with Christians. Trajan’s reply stated that Christians should not be actively sought out, but if anyone was accused of being a Christian, they would have the chance to prove otherwise by worshiping a pagan deity. They must be put to death if found guilty of being a Christian.

This policy of Trajan’s was carried out for the next 200 years. During this period, martyrs gained high respect among Christians for following in the footsteps of Christ in their sufferings. For example, Polycarp of Smyrna was martyred in AD 160, and his bones were considered precious, with the “birthdate of his martyrdom” celebrated. This eventually led to the observation of different days for the heroes of the faith. This practice continues in various traditions today, although Protestants abandoned it during the Reformation due to unverifiable legends and superstitions surrounding alleged sacred relics that developed later on.

On Gnosticism

The origin of Gnosticism is not a simple discussion and scholarship continues to dig into original sources to better pin where exactly “Gnosticism” began. 

The term “Gnosticism” was first used by Irenaeus, followed by church fathers, and even Neo-Platonic pagan opponents of Gnostics. Prior to this, it is believed that John the Apostle encountered early forms of Gnosticism given his emphasis on the incarnation of Jesus.  Many, however, have determined that Gnosticism comes from a form of Hellenized Jewish Mysticism that sought to explain difficulties with Israel’s experience post-AD 70.

Because of the numerous views within Gnosticism, and no central authority or canon, “Christianized Gnosticism” is best placed in the 2nd Century when we see “Christian” Gnostic teachers being addressed by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Hippolytus, Origen, and Ephiphanius. As it pertains to the Apostolic Fathers there have been debates over whether or not figures such as Ignatius were pushing back against early forms of Gnosticism.

With recent scholarship and the analysis of the Gnostic texts of Nag Hammadi, it is best to bear in mind that Christianized Gnosticism was not existent by itself nor is the Gnosticism we find polemics of in church writings representative of all forms of Gnosticism. Gnosticism is a debated term typically and loosely used to describe a religious phenomenon with many articulations and faces. A central idea of this worldview was the acquisition of “true knowledge” regarding divine and human spiritual realities. Gnosticism is heavily debated in many ways, but we will summarize what is traditionally understood concerning “Christianized Gnosticism.” Gnosticism is linked to platonic dualism, a division of matter and spirit, which is articulated as depicting the physical or material world as inherently evil. In contrast the spirit world was potentially good. Additionally, Gnosticism has an understanding of “a scale of being.” 

Gnosticism presents the supreme being as so transcendent that he cannot be conceived. Further, for the Gnostic worldview, a gap exists between this supreme being and the physical world. In this gap, intermediaries inhabit this space. In various articulations, “the fall,” is when the intermediary known as the Demiurge created our material universe and human beings. In many schools of thought, this Demiurge is depicted as “the God of the Old Testament.”

Despite the gap between the supreme being and the material world, human beings are made up of the same spiritual substance of the supreme being, and are noted to be trapped within their physical bodies. It is our being trapped in our physical bodies that we need salvation from so that we can be reabsorbed into the supreme being. The supreme being thus sends a redeemer and a messenger who is to awaken people of their true identity, and home, via knowledge of the truth. Jesus within Gnosticism mixed into Christianity, then, is this redeemer. As Stephen Wellum in “God the Son Incarnate” notes, 

“All forms of Gnosticism denied that “Christ” – This heavenly, spiritual redeemer – became incarnate, given their antithesis between spirit and matter. So, they argued that ‘Christ’ either temporarily associated himself with the man Jesus (adoptionism) or he simple took the appearance of a physical body (docetism). For most Gnostics, the heavenly redeemer entered Jesus at his baptism and left him before he died on the cross.”

Gnosticism mixed with Christianity ultimately took various forms, but fundamentally denied the humanity of Christ. Docetism is the most familiar heresy inspired by Gnostic influence. Additionally, many early false writings of the New Testament can be traced to Gnosticism such as the Gospel of Mary, Thomas (right image), Judas, and so on.

Clement of Rome & 1 Clement

Summary of Clement

Clement of Rome was a bishop (or overseer) of the church in Rome who is considered a disciple of Paul with association [to some extent] with Peter. It is generally accepted that Clement is the author of the letter 1 Clement, written around AD 96. Furthermore, it is held by some, including Origen of Alexandria, that Clement of Rome is the same Clement mentioned in Philippians 4.3. According to Eusebius, Clement was a part of the Roman church’s leadership for nine years. 

Summary of Major Themes in 1 Clement:

• Unity and harmony (1 Clement 4-13): Clement emphasizes the importance of maintaining unity and harmony within the Christian community, warning against division and discord.
• Obedience and humility (1 Clement 14-23, 24-30): Clement highlights the significance of obedience to God’s will and the humility required for sincere repentance and forgiveness.
• Good Works and Practical faith (1 Clement 31-38): Clement stresses the importance of living out one’s faith through acts of charity, hospitality, and good works.
• Authority and order (1 Clement 39-47): Clement addresses issues of proper authority and order within the Christian community, urging the Corinthians to respect their leaders and restore proper order.
• Repentance and forgiveness (1 Clement 24-30): Clement emphasizes the need for repentance, forgiveness, and spiritual renewal as essential aspects of the Christian life.

2 Clement

Summary of 2 Clement

The work “2 Clement” is often called the Second Letter of Clement, but it is neither a letter nor is it written by Clement. Instead, it is a sermon by an elder/presbyter who is anonymous (17.3). The sermon relies heavily on Isaiah 54 and calls for its audience to come to repentance, purity, and perseverance. Some have suggested that 2 Clement is also a work that reacts against gnostic ideas because of its stress on the deity of Christ, the resurrection, and the judgment to come.  

What we know about the author, dating, or occasion of 2 Clement is minimal. Yet, this sermon was preserved by Christians and thus seen as worthy of preservation. 

Summary of Major Themes in 2 Clement:

• Repentance and Holiness: 2 Clement emphasizes the importance of repentance from sin and living a holy life as essential aspects of Christian faith and practice. The author exhorts the readers to turn away from sin and pursue righteousness, highlighting the need for genuine repentance as a fundamental aspect of Christian living. (2 Clement 7:1-3)
• The New Covenant in Christ: The work compares and contrasts the Old Covenant of the Jewish law with the New Covenant established in Jesus Christ. The author highlights the superiority of the New Covenant, which is fulfilled in Christ and brings salvation to all humanity. This theme underscores the central role of Jesus Christ as the mediator of the New Covenant and the source of salvation for believers. (2 Clement 11:1-3)
• Faith and Works: 2 Clement emphasizes the inseparable relationship between faith and good works in the Christian life. The author stresses that righteous deeds accompany genuine faith and that a mere profession of faith without corresponding works is insufficient. This theme underscores the importance of both belief and action in the life of a faithful Christian. (2 Clement 14:1-2)
• Eschatology and Judgment: The homily warns the readers about the imminent return of Jesus Christ and the final judgment. The author underscores the importance of being prepared for the day of judgment and living in anticipation of the Lord’s return. This theme highlights the eschatological perspective of early Christianity, emphasizing the expectation of the second coming of Christ and the accountability of believers before God’s judgment. (2 Clement 17:1-4)
• Encouragement and Exhortation: The author provides encouragement and exhortation to the readers, urging them to persevere in faith, love, and good works. This theme underscores the importance of steadfastness in the face of challenges and the need for ongoing spiritual growth and perseverance in the Christian journey. (2 Clement 20:1-4)

Ignatius of Antioch and his 7 Letters

Summary of Ignatius

Ignatius of Antioch was a bishop [or overseer] of the church in Antioch in the 2nd century. He was arrested and led to Rome by escort, where he expected his martyrdom. During his journey to Rome, Ignatius penned five letters to churches in Asia Minor, one letter to the church of Rome, and a personal letter to Polycarp. The seven churches that Ignatius wrote to in Asia Minor were located in Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Philadelphia, and Smyrna. We do not know whether or not Ignatius arrived in Rome, but Polycarp to the Philippians assumes that his friend died a martyr and seeks confirmation (9:2; 13:2). 

Within the letters of Ignatius, we find a particular emphasis on the importance of unity within the local church, wherein he argued for the importance of the bishop’s [or overseer] role as a pillar of unity and proper authority. Ignatius speaks about his concerns against false teachers within the church, the unity of the church, and his coming death. Ignatius feared that false teachers within the church would be more deadly than the pagan society outside of the church as such, could split the church, which is reflected in nearly all of his letters.

In speaking to false teachings, Ignatius defended the deity of Christ and the real incarnation of Christ via Christ’s true suffering and bodily resurrection. In the letter to the Philadelphians, Ignatius speaks of a schism that occurred as some had moved from their bishop while teaching that it was necessary to observe the law. Ignatius speaks heavily against those who would follow the schismatics noting that they will not inherit the kingdom of God if they hold to alien views (3:3). 

Within his letters against false teachings and unity of the church by means of a bishop’s authority, Ignatius spends time reflecting on his martyrdom. Ignatius presents a zealous eagerness to imitate the suffering of Jesus and thus becoming a true disciple of Christ via his suffering. In part, he does express some worry that he will fail his test, yet his desire in the letters is to suffer as Christ suffered, “Let me be the meal of the beasts!” (To the Romans).

Summary of Major Themes in Ignatius:

• Ecclesiology: Ignatius emphasizes the importance of church leadership as essential for the unity and order of the Christian community. He emphasizes the authority and importance of the bishop as the overseer of the local church, and advocates for obedience and submission to the bishop’s authority. (Ignatius to the Ephesians, 3:1; Ignatius to the Magnesians, 2:1)
• Divinity of Jesus Christ: Ignatius strongly affirms the divinity of Jesus Christ, asserting his belief in the incarnation of Christ as the Son of God. He emphasizes that Jesus Christ is both fully human and fully divine and the source of salvation for all humanity. (Ignatius to the Ephesians, 18:2; Ignatius to the Romans, 1:3)
• Christian Unity: Ignatius stresses the importance of unity and harmony within the church. He emphasizes the need for love, humility, and mutual submission among believers and warns against division, schism, and false doctrines. (Ignatius to the Ephesians, 4:1-2; Ignatius to the Magnesians, 6:1)
• Martyrdom: Ignatius expresses his desire for martyrdom and views it as a means of imitating Christ and attaining closer union with God. He encourages the recipients of his letters to support and pray for his martyrdom, and to be willing to endure suffering and persecution for the sake of the faith. (Ignatius to the Romans, 2:1; Ignatius to the Ephesians, 9:1)
• Ethical Conduct: Ignatius emphasizes the importance of living a holy and righteous life in accordance with the teachings of Christ. He encourages believers to practice virtues such as humility, obedience, self-control, and love, and to avoid immoral behaviors and false teachings. (Ignatius to the Ephesians, 14:1; Ignatius to the Trallians, 2:1)
• Counter to Legalism: Ignatius argues against those who advocate for placing Christians under the Jewish law, asserting that the observance of the Mosaic law no longer binds Christians. He emphasizes that the Old Covenant has been fulfilled in Jesus Christ, and that Christians are now under the New Covenant of faith in Christ, which surpasses the limitations of the Old Covenant. (Ignatius to the Magnesians, 8:1; Ignatius to the Philadelphians, 6:1)
• Church Worship: Ignatius briefly mentions the practice of the Eucharist (or communion) as a means of unity. He emphasizes the importance of celebrating communion in a manner consistent with the apostles’ teachings. (Ignatius to the Ephesians, 20:2; Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, 8:1)

Polycarp, his Letter, and Martyrdom

Summary of Polycarp

Polycarp was a leader and bishop in the church of Smyrna, in Asia Minor. He would be most famous for his martyrdom that occurred sometime around 155-167 and he has been considered one of the most noble individuals of the post-apostolic period. Polycarp has traditionally been considered a disciple of the Apostle John, although a handful of scholars questions this. What can be confirmed is that Polycarp had been friends with Ignatius of Antioch who would write a letter to Polycarp. 

Irenaeus of Lyons would claim that, “Polycarp not only was instructed by apostles and conversed with many who had seen the Lord but also was appointed by apostles in Asia as bishop of Smyrna. I also saw him in my childhood, for he lived a long time and passed away in extreme old age in glorious martyrdom.” (Irenaeus, Against Heresies, book 3). 

According to Eusebius in his History of the Church (4.14), Polycarp traveled to Rome around AD 160 to speak to Anicetus concerning the dating of Easter.  The issue to be discussed was surrounding whether or not Easter should be observed according to the Jewish calendar (regardless of what day it fell on) or on the nearest Sunday following the Passover date’s landing on the calendar. 

By all accounts, Polycarp had a significant role to play in the church amidst the growing movement of Gnosticis. According to Eusebius, Polycarp had gone into hiding outside of Smyrna when persecution broke out. He was betrayed, arrested, and burned at the stake according to “The Martyrdom of Polycarp.” The only surviving document from Polycarp himself is his letter to the Philippians, which is a letter written in reply to their inquiry.

Major Themes of Polycarp to the Philippians:

• Love and Humility: Polycarp emphasizes the importance of love and humility as essential virtues in the Christian life. He encourages the Philippians to imitate God’s love and to walk in humility towards one another. (Polycarp to the Philippians, 2:1)
• Obedience to Church Leaders: Polycarp emphasizes the need for the Philippians to be obedient to their church leaders, as they hold authority in the community of faith. He urges them to submit to their leaders and to avoid rebellion and division. (Polycarp to the Philippians, 5:1-2)
• Defense of Orthodox Doctrine: Polycarp addresses the issue of false teachings and heresies that were prevalent during his time, and warns the Philippians against their dangers. He affirms the true doctrine of the incarnation of Jesus Christ and his atoning sacrifice, and urges the Philippians to hold fast to the orthodox faith. (Polycarp to the Philippians, 7:1-3)
• Exhortation to Steadfastness in Faith: Polycarp encourages the Philippians to remain steadfast in their faith, even in the face of persecution and suffering, and to trust in the providence of God. (Polycarp to the Philippians, 8:1-3)
• Instructions on Christian Conduct: Polycarp gives practical instructions on various aspects of Christian living, including the avoidance of greed, swearing, and false oaths, and the pursuit of virtues such as temperance, patience, and contentment. (Polycarp to the Philippians, 2:3-3:3)

The Didache

Summary of the Didache

“The Didache” literally means the teaching and has sometimes been called the teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles by the Twelve Apostles or the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. The Didache is a mystery regarding who wrote it, where they wrote it, and most obviously when it was written. Many commentators on the Didache have stated that it is likely a compilation from various sources rather than the work of a singular author, making its dating more of a range rather than a single period. What is clear is that the Didache is a manual dealing with teachings of the two ways (life and death) and church practices. The ending of the document presents a brief apocalyptic section, but for the majority, the document is concerned with instruction. The general presentation of the work is teaching on Christian life (chapters 1-6), discussions on baptism, fasting, prayer and the Lord’s Supper (chapters 7-10), and discussions on disciplinary actions and leadership (chapters 11-13) and the conclusions (chapters 14-16). 

Some of The Didache’s Contents

• The Two Ways: The Didache introduces the concept of the “way of life” and the “way of death” at the very beginning of the text, providing ethical instructions for Christian living (Didache 1:1-6). This framework presents a stark contrast between right and wrong, good and evil, and sets the tone for the moral teachings in the rest of the document.
• Church Practices: The Didache provides detailed instructions on various church practices, including worship, baptism, fasting, prayer, and the Lord’s Supper (Didache 7-10). It emphasizes that worship should occur on the Lord’s Day (Sunday), and encourages believers to gather together to worship, pray, and give thanks (Didache 14:1). It also describes the proper mode of baptism, such as the use of running water and a baptismal formula (Didache 7:1-4).
• Disciplinary Actions and Leadership: The Didache discusses disciplinary actions within the church and provides guidance on leadership roles (Didache 11-13). It addresses issues such as false prophets, false teachers, and how to discern between true and false Prophets/teachings (Didache 11-13). It also provides instructions on the appointment and conduct of bishops (overseers) and deacons, emphasizing their qualifications and responsibilities (Didache 15:1-2).
• Virtuous Teaching: The Didache strongly emphasizes virtuous teaching and the importance of true teachers. It advises believers to accept genuine teachers who lead them towards righteousness and to reject false teachers who promote immorality and deceit (Didache 11:3-12:5). This highlights the Didache’s concern for the integrity of Christian instruction and the need for discernment in matters of doctrine.
• Ethics: The Didache addresses various ethical issues, such as abortion, and sexual immortality (Didache 2:2). It also emphasizes the importance of treating others justly, sharing with those in need, and not being greedy or covetous (Didache 4-6). Chapter three speaks on a proper disposition of humility.
• Eschatological Expectations: The Didache includes a brief apocalyptic section, discussing the signs of the end times and the coming of the Lord (Didache 16). It highlights the early Christian community’s belief in the imminent return of Christ and the need for vigilance and readiness among believers.

The Epistle of Barnabas

Summary on the Epistle of Barnabas

The Epistle of Barnabas is written by an anonymous teacher who seeks to explain the Old Testament scriptures to his Christian community in light of who Christ is. While the epistle is traditionally called the epistle of “Barnabas,” most scholarship rejects that Barnabas wrote the letter.  Instead, the letter is thought to have been written in Alexandria because of its particular approach in hermeneutics and its earliest witness, Clement of Alexandria. Most date the epistle between AD 70 and AD 132. The epistle focuses on how Christians should interpret the Jewish texts and explaining the relationship between Judaism and Christianity. Its angle is one that seeks to persuade and convince that is often considered highly polemical. 

One of the emphasis is similar to that found in the Didache, that is, the discussion on the two ways. However, while the Didache frames it as the way of life and the way of death, Barnabas frames the discussion as the way of life and the way of darkness. This has led some scholars to conclude that these texts and traditions are dependent on one another. 

The epistle focuses on eschatology in discussing the struggle of the present age and the eradication of the present evil age with the coming of the age to come. Here the author speaks of the Christian ethic before discussing Israel’s role in God’s plan. Finally, Barnabas argues that Israel forfeited God’s covenant because of their idolatry and disobedience and that Christians have become the true and intended heirs of the covenant.

Some of The Epistle’s Contents

• Allegorical Interpretation: The Epistle of Barnabas employs allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament, interpreting the Jewish Scriptures symbolically and figuratively. It presents an allegorical understanding of various Old Testament events, characters, and commandments as foreshadowing or pointing to Christian truths and practices.
• New Covenant and Fulfillment of the Law: The Epistle of Barnabas emphasizes the idea of the new covenant in Christ, interpreting Jesus as the fulfillment of the Jewish law and prophecies. It highlights how the Old Testament’s commandments, rituals, and sacrifices were types and shadows of the realities found in the Christian faith.
• Ethical Teaching: The Epistle of Barnabas provides practical ethical instruction for Christian living, emphasizing the importance of virtues such as love, faith, humility, and righteousness. It encourages believers to avoid sin, strive for holiness, and live a separate life from the immorality of the world.
• Anti-Judaic Polemic: The Epistle of Barnabas reflects a negative view of Judaism and Jewish practices, often portraying Jews as misguided and their rituals as obsolete. In addition, it presents a contrast between Judaism and Christianity, arguing that Christians are the true heirs of God’s promises and that Jews have misunderstood the meaning of the Old Testament.
• Typology and Symbolism: The Epistle of Barnabas uses typology and symbolism extensively to interpret the Old Testament as prefiguring Christian realities. It sees the events, characters, and rituals of the Old Testament as pointing to the person and work of Jesus Christ, and the establishment of the Christian community.
• Eschatological Hope: The Epistle of Barnabas includes eschatological themes, discussing the hope of the coming kingdom of God, the resurrection, and the final judgment. It encourages believers to look forward to the consummation of God’s plan of salvation and to live in light of the imminent return of Christ. 
• On False Teaching: The Epistle of Barnabas addresses the issue of false teachings and heresies within the Christian community. It warns against the influence of false prophets and teachers, urging believers to discern the truth and to hold fast to the orthodox Christian faith.
• Christology: The Epistle of Barnabas presents a high Christology, emphasizing the divinity of Jesus Christ and his unique role as the Son of God. It portrays Jesus as the key figure in God’s plan of salvation, who brings redemption and reconciliation to humanity through his sacrifice on the cross.
• Moral Dualism: The Epistle of Barnabas presents a moral dualism, contrasting the ways of light and darkness, righteousness and sin, and urging believers to choose the path of virtue and holiness. It highlights the ongoing struggle between good and evil, and the need for believers to resist temptation and live in accordance with God’s will.
• Community Life: The Epistle of Barnabas provides instructions on how Christians should live together in community, emphasizing the importance of mutual love, humility, and accountability. It encourages believers to support one another, to be hospitable, and to strive for unity and harmony within the Christian fellowship.

The Shepherd of Hermas

Summary of the Shepherd of Hermas

The Shepherd of Hermas (or called Hermas) is a work that would be particularly popular in the second and third centuries among Christians. Hermas puts forward a Jewish-Christian perspective through various types of imagery and analogy. The author of the work attempts to answer various questions as to how Christians should live especially those who live in Rome. The work narrates various visions with subsequent explanations of said visions which are given to Hermas (the main figure of the work) by an ‘angel of repentance’ who appears as a Shepherd. The work’s emphasis is centered on self control and observing the commandments given by Christ. 

There is little Christological reflection in the work, but instead focus is placed upon the Holy Spirit, yet the term spirit is used in several ways making a theological analysis difficult. Hermas’ use and understanding of the Spirit as a hypostasis (or person) of the Godhead is debated. 

The genre of the book is similar to that which is classified as “apocalypse” in that it focuses on a revelational vision via a mediator with subsequent interpretations, though, its focus is not one of end times but on practical concerns. As for the author, some have suggested it was Paul or Hermas, yet both seem unlikely. The author ultimately remains unknown. The dating of the work is also generally unknown but the range of proposed views go from AD 70s – 175.

Some of The shepherd’s Contents

• Repentance: The Shepherd of Hermas highlights the importance of repentance as key themes. It presents the idea of God’s mercy and grace, and the need for sinners to turn away from their sinful ways and seek forgiveness through sincere repentance.
• Moral and Ethical Instruction: The Shepherd of Hermas provides practical moral and ethical instruction, emphasizing the importance of living a virtuous and righteous life. It highlights the virtues of faith, love, patience, humility, and self-control, and encourages believers to cultivate them daily.
• Community Life and Unity: The Shepherd of Hermas addresses the issue of community life and unity among believers. It emphasizes the importance of living in harmony and mutual love, and warns against divisions and conflicts within the Christian community. It encourages believers to be compassionate, forgiving, and supportive of one another. It further presents the idea of God’s forgiveness and the need for believers to forgive others who have wronged them. Finally, it emphasizes the importance of reconciling with one another and restoring broken relationships.
• Discernment and Discipleship: The Shepherd of Hermas addresses the challenges of discernment and discipleship in the Christian life. It encourages believers to discern between good and evil, and to strive for spiritual maturity and growth. It emphasizes the need for vigilance, self-examination, and adherence to God’s commandments.

The Epistle to Diognetus

Summary on the Epistle to Digonetus

The Epistle of Diognetus is an anonymous early Christian writing, and the authorship remains uncertain. Some scholars have proposed that it could have been written by a disciple of the apostles, while others speculate that a Christian apologist or teacher may have penned it. Just as well, the exact date of the Epistle is uncertain, and scholars have proposed various timeframes for its composition. Some suggest it could have been written in the late 1st century, while others propose a date in the early 2nd century. However, no consensus has been reached regarding its dating.

As for its purpose, the Epistle of Diognetus was likely written to respond to the prevailing pagan culture and to instruct and encourage early Christians in their faith. Furthermore, it was likely composed during a time when Christians faced persecution and misunderstanding from the broader society, and the author sought to provide a reasoned defense of the Christian faith.

The author expresses a deep appreciation for the mystery of God’s plan of salvation and contrasts the wisdom and truth of Christianity with the emptiness and futility of pagan beliefs and practices. The author emphasizes the unique revelation of God in the person of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, and the profound transformation that occurs in the lives of believers through faith in Him. The author also highlights Christians’ distinctive ethical and moral character, calling them to live lives of holiness, love, and righteousness as a testimony to the truth of their faith.

Some of The letter’s Contents

• Unique revelation of God in Jesus Christ: The Epistle of Diognetus emphasizes God’s special revelation through Jesus Christ, contrasting it with the pagan beliefs of the time. It highlights Christianity’s divine wisdom and mystery, portraying Christ as the embodiment of God’s revelation to humanity.
• Transformation through faith in Christ: The author underscores the transformative power of faith in Christ. He describes how believers are renewed and regenerated through their faith in Jesus, resulting in a distinctive way of living that sets them apart from the pagan culture.
• Ethical and moral character of Christians: The Epistle emphasizes Christians’ ethical and moral character, portraying them as upright and virtuous individuals. It highlights their loving kindness, humility, and selflessness, which are seen as distinctive qualities that set them apart from the prevailing pagan culture.
• Defense of the Christian faith: The Epistle serves as an apologetic work, defending the Christian faith against pagan beliefs and misconceptions. It presents Christianity as a rational and reasonable faith, refuting pagan arguments and misunderstandings about Christians and their beliefs.
• It portrays Christians as following a different way of life compared to the prevailing pagan culture, with emphasis on their worship of the one true God, rejection of idolatry, and adherence to the teachings of Christ.

The Fragments of Papias

Summary on the Fragments of Papias

Papias (AD 60-130) was a bishop in Asia Minor who would significantly influence Irenaeus of Lyons, Hippolytus of Rome, and Victorinus of Petovium. According to Eusebius (3, 39), Papias was a follower of one of the seven disciples of John. At the same time, according to Irenaeus, Papias had close ties to the apostles, was a follower of John, and a contemporary of Polycarp (Against Heresies, 5.33.4). 

He is best known for his five-volume work, Expositions of the Sayings of the Lord, which was highly respected and heavily quoted. This work was an attempt to preserve the sayings of Christ that were not recorded in the gospels. He collected these sayings from various sources who claimed to have received them from the apostles, yet many of them were strange, leading many in the church not to consider them authentic. 

The Fragments of Papias

The fragments of Papias are, as one can guess, fragments of this five-volume work. The collection of fragments has been diverse in their size, numbering, sequence, and selection in various publications. This makes the publications of Papias more complex than we would hope. Still, nonetheless, Papias has led scholars to deeper reflection on the text of the New Testament and the reality that there were oral traditions regarding Jesus circulation beyond the gospels within the post-apostolic period.

Papias and his Contents

• Papias emphasized receiving teachings directly from the apostles and their disciples. He valued firsthand accounts and oral traditions that were passed down from the apostles, seeking to preserve and transmit their teachings.
• Papias was concerned with preserving the authenticity and accuracy of the Gospel accounts. Therefore, he sought to confirm the reliability of the Gospel narratives by gathering information from those who had direct contact with the apostles and eyewitnesses of Jesus’ ministry.
• Papias expressed a keen interest in the teachings of Jesus regarding the end times. He referred to the “sayings of the Lord” and sought to understand the details of Jesus’ teachings on the coming kingdom of God and the resurrection of the dead.
• Papias advocated for a literal interpretation of Scripture, rejecting allegorical interpretations that deviated from the original meaning. He sought to understand the words of Jesus and the apostles in their literal sense, avoiding speculative or symbolic interpretations.
• Papias relied on oral tradition as a source of knowledge about the teachings of Jesus and the apostles. He recognized the value of direct testimony from those who had firsthand knowledge and sought to preserve and transmit these oral traditions (See Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 3.39 for more on Papias).